be seen by the land reform of Nehemiah, already in the Persian period (Neh. 5:1–12). Though the Hasmoneans subscribed to the Israelite ideal of “each man under his own vine” (1 Macc. 14:12), there is plenty of evidence that they too continued the policy of large estates in the conquered territories, as did the Herodians also.21 This pressure on the system meant that more and more people were driven off the land and reduced to penury. The results of this sketch, patchy though it is, suggest that there